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Cyberwarfare: A Constructivist Analysis Towards the United States-China Cyberwar
Corresponding Author(s) : Jalaluddin Rizqi Mulia
Proceedings Universitas Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta Undergraduate Conference,
Vol. 3 No. 1 (2023): Crafting Innovation for Global Benefit
Abstract
Cyberspace is a discussion not merely related to technological advancements, but also penetrates the socio-political realm. Cyber issues are now starting to overwhelm security isue with the spread of cyberattacks. Although only happening in cyberspace, the impact resulting from the action can be fatal for major infrastructures in the real world, icluding data management, public private information, and the state security system. This is what happened between the United State (US) and China. Beforehand, the US and China had an agreement in cyberspace issues to develop international norms. Nonetheless, this step was not significant given the reluctance of both parties to implement the points of agreement as they were not in line with the national interest. In addition, the two countries often accuse each other of cyberrattacks occurring in their respective territories.
As the world's two strong cyber powers, the process of cyberwar becomes urgent to be analyzed through the constructivism concept, as it takes identity understanding into account. By utilizing descriptive qualitative approach through literature study, this research aims to understand the cyberspace situation between the US and China and to analyze the ongoing process of the US-China cyberwar from a constructivism perspective. Social construction plays an important role as it shapes perceptions of other actors. With China, it is difficult for the US to form sustainable cooperation given the fluctuating dynamics of the relationship between the two. Until the end, it is currently difficult to find similarities that would reduce the tension of political conflict.
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- Abbasi, M. (2021, Mei 1). Security in Cyberspace in the Field of International Relations. Journal of Archives in Military Medicine, 8(4), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.5812/jamm.114485
- Austin, G. (2015, Juli 31). 2015 is the year of Chinese cyber power. East Asia Forum. Retrieved Februari 11, 2023, from https://www.eastasiaforum.org/2015/07/31/2015-is-the-year-of-chinese-cyber-power/
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- Economy, E. C. (2018, Juni 29). The great firewall of China: Xi Jinping's internet shutdown. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/news/2018/jun/29/the-great-firewall-of-china-xi-jinpings-internet-shutdown
- Flannery, R. (2022, Januari 17). Two Areas Where The U.S. And China Can Still Work Together. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/russellflannery/2022/10/08/two-areas-where-the-us-and-china-can-still-work-together/?sh=5a00ebf26783
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- Imam, M., & Azzqy, A. (2018). Aktivitas Spionasi Republik Rakyat Tiongkok ke Amerika Serikat Terkait Proyek Militer Pesawat F-35 Joint Strike Fighter Pada Tahun 2014-2017. Balcony, 2(1), 43-54. https://jom.fisip.budiluhur.ac.id/index.php/balcony/article/view/51
- Isnarti, R. (2016, November). A Comparison of Neorealism, Liberalism, and Constructivism in Analysing Cyber War. Andalas Journal of International Studies, 5(2), 151-165. https://doi.org/10.25077/ajis.5.2.151-165.2016
- Jackson, R., & Sorensen, G. (2013). Pengantar Studi Hubungan Internasional. Pustaka Pelajar.
- Jamison, B. C. (2021, Mei). A Constructivist Approach to a Rising China. Journal of Indo-Pacific Affairs. https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/JIPA/Display/Article/2624409/a-constructivist-approach-to-a-rising-china/
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- McSorley, K. (2021). Exploring and Analyzing American Perspectives of the Chinese Social Credit System [Master's thesis, University of Tampa]. The University of Tampa Institutional Repository. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11868/2768
- Michael, J. (2019, September 12). Melihat Kekuatan Pasukan Siber China. Merdeka.com. https://www.merdeka.com/teknologi/melihat-kekuatan-pasukan-siber-china.html
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- Nazir, M. (1988). Metode Penelitian. Ghalia Indonesia.
- Nugroho, K. A., & Windiani, R. (2018, Agustus). Pengaruh Cyber Attack terhadap Kebijakan Cyber Security Amerika Serikat. Journal of International Relations, 4(3), 393-401. https://doi.org/10.14710/jirud.v4i3.21048
- Perwita, A. A. B., & Yani, Y. M. (2020). Pengantar Ilmu Hubungan Internasional. PT Remaja Rosdakarya.
- Petallides, C. J. (2012). Cyber Terrorism and IR Theory: Realism, Liberalism, and Constructivism in the New Security Threat. Inquiries Journal/Student Pulse, 4(03). http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/a?id=627
- PinterPolitik. (2021, Oktober 13). Rusia-Tiongkok Pemantik Perang Siber? PinterPolitik.com. Retrieved Februari 11, 2023, from https://www.pinterpolitik.com/in-depth/rusia-tiongkok-pemantik-perang-siber/
- Ramadhan, I. (2021). The Implication of Cyberspace Towards State Geopolitics. POLITICON: Jurnal Ilmu Politik, 3(2), 161-184. https://doi.org/10.15575/politicon.v3i2.12660
- Saputera, M. Y., & Waluyo, T. J. (2015, Oktober). Pengaruh Cyber Security Strategy Amerika Serikat Menghadapi Ancaman Cyber Warfare. Jurnal Online Mahasiswa Fakultas Ilmu Sosial dan Ilmu Politik Universitas Riau, 2(2), 1-14. https://jom.unri.ac.id/index.php/JOMFSIP/article/view/7446
- Setiawan, R., Reksoprodjo, A. H.S., & Suhirwan. (2020). Analisa Perlombaan Senjata Siber Antara Amerika dan China 2014-2018 Menggunakan Richardson Model of Arms Race. Jurnal Peperangan Asimetris, 6(2), 136-156. https://jurnalprodi.idu.ac.id/index.php/PA/article/view/909
- Singer, P. W., & Friedman, A. (2014). Cybersecurity and Cyberwar: What Everyone Needs to Know. Oxford University Press.
- Thomas, E. (2017, November 13). Taming the 'Wild West': The Role of International Norms in Cyberspace. E-International Relations. Retrieved Februari 11, 2023, from https://www.e-ir.info/2017/11/13/taming-the-wild-west-the-role-of-international-norms-in-cyberspace/
- Triwahyuni, D., & Yani, Y. M. (2018, Juni). Dampak Pembangunan Cyberpower Tiongkok Terhadap Kepentingan Amerika Serikat. Jurnal Ilmu Politik dan Komunikasi, 8(1), 1-14. https://ojs.unikom.ac.id/index.php/jipsi/article/view/883
- Warrell, H. (2021, Juni 27). China's cyber power at least a decade behind the US, new study finds. Financial Times. https://www.ft.com/content/3350bce7-7f19-4a45-a749-79aa9b3b265e
- Wong, E., & Buckley, C. (2021, Juli 27). U.S. Says China's Repression of Uighurs Is 'Genocide'. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/19/us/politics/trump-china-xinjiang.html
- Xiao, B. (2021, Januari 29). Google pulled its service from China more than a decade ago — can Australia learn from that? ABC. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-01-30/google-leave-australia-what-to-learn-from-china-legislation-law/13102112
References
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Brown, G., & Yung, C. D. (2017, Januari 19). Evaluating the US-China Cybersecurity Agreement, Part 1: The US Approach to Cyberspace. The Diplomat. https://thediplomat.com/2017/01/evaluating-the-us-china-cybersecurity-agreement-part-1-the-us-approach-to-cyberspace/
Economy, E. C. (2018, Juni 29). The great firewall of China: Xi Jinping's internet shutdown. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/news/2018/jun/29/the-great-firewall-of-china-xi-jinpings-internet-shutdown
Flannery, R. (2022, Januari 17). Two Areas Where The U.S. And China Can Still Work Together. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/russellflannery/2022/10/08/two-areas-where-the-us-and-china-can-still-work-together/?sh=5a00ebf26783
Gady, F.-S. (2016, Juni 16). China-US Relations in Cyberspace: A Half-Year Assessment. The Diplomat. https://thediplomat.com/2016/06/china-us-relations-in-cyberspace-a-half-year-assessment/
Imam, M., & Azzqy, A. (2018). Aktivitas Spionasi Republik Rakyat Tiongkok ke Amerika Serikat Terkait Proyek Militer Pesawat F-35 Joint Strike Fighter Pada Tahun 2014-2017. Balcony, 2(1), 43-54. https://jom.fisip.budiluhur.ac.id/index.php/balcony/article/view/51
Isnarti, R. (2016, November). A Comparison of Neorealism, Liberalism, and Constructivism in Analysing Cyber War. Andalas Journal of International Studies, 5(2), 151-165. https://doi.org/10.25077/ajis.5.2.151-165.2016
Jackson, R., & Sorensen, G. (2013). Pengantar Studi Hubungan Internasional. Pustaka Pelajar.
Jamison, B. C. (2021, Mei). A Constructivist Approach to a Rising China. Journal of Indo-Pacific Affairs. https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/JIPA/Display/Article/2624409/a-constructivist-approach-to-a-rising-china/
Kania, E., Sacks, S., Triolo, P., & Webster, G. (2017, September 25). China's Strategic Thinking on Building Power in Cyberspace. New America. Retrieved Februari 11, 2023, from https://www.newamerica.org/cybersecurity-initiative/blog/chinas-strategic-thinking-building-power-cyberspace/
Kurnia, T. (2022, September 29). China Berang Akibat Serangan Siber AS ke Universitas Politeknik. Liputan6.com. https://www.liputan6.com/global/read/5083723/china-berang-akibat-serangan-siber-as-ke-universitas-politeknik
Martin-Shields, C. (2021, Agustus 24). Defining the new digital world order. D+C - Development + Cooperation. https://www.dandc.eu/en/article/us-and-china-are-locked-battle-dominance-cyberspace
McSorley, K. (2021). Exploring and Analyzing American Perspectives of the Chinese Social Credit System [Master's thesis, University of Tampa]. The University of Tampa Institutional Repository. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11868/2768
Michael, J. (2019, September 12). Melihat Kekuatan Pasukan Siber China. Merdeka.com. https://www.merdeka.com/teknologi/melihat-kekuatan-pasukan-siber-china.html
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Nazir, M. (1988). Metode Penelitian. Ghalia Indonesia.
Nugroho, K. A., & Windiani, R. (2018, Agustus). Pengaruh Cyber Attack terhadap Kebijakan Cyber Security Amerika Serikat. Journal of International Relations, 4(3), 393-401. https://doi.org/10.14710/jirud.v4i3.21048
Perwita, A. A. B., & Yani, Y. M. (2020). Pengantar Ilmu Hubungan Internasional. PT Remaja Rosdakarya.
Petallides, C. J. (2012). Cyber Terrorism and IR Theory: Realism, Liberalism, and Constructivism in the New Security Threat. Inquiries Journal/Student Pulse, 4(03). http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/a?id=627
PinterPolitik. (2021, Oktober 13). Rusia-Tiongkok Pemantik Perang Siber? PinterPolitik.com. Retrieved Februari 11, 2023, from https://www.pinterpolitik.com/in-depth/rusia-tiongkok-pemantik-perang-siber/
Ramadhan, I. (2021). The Implication of Cyberspace Towards State Geopolitics. POLITICON: Jurnal Ilmu Politik, 3(2), 161-184. https://doi.org/10.15575/politicon.v3i2.12660
Saputera, M. Y., & Waluyo, T. J. (2015, Oktober). Pengaruh Cyber Security Strategy Amerika Serikat Menghadapi Ancaman Cyber Warfare. Jurnal Online Mahasiswa Fakultas Ilmu Sosial dan Ilmu Politik Universitas Riau, 2(2), 1-14. https://jom.unri.ac.id/index.php/JOMFSIP/article/view/7446
Setiawan, R., Reksoprodjo, A. H.S., & Suhirwan. (2020). Analisa Perlombaan Senjata Siber Antara Amerika dan China 2014-2018 Menggunakan Richardson Model of Arms Race. Jurnal Peperangan Asimetris, 6(2), 136-156. https://jurnalprodi.idu.ac.id/index.php/PA/article/view/909
Singer, P. W., & Friedman, A. (2014). Cybersecurity and Cyberwar: What Everyone Needs to Know. Oxford University Press.
Thomas, E. (2017, November 13). Taming the 'Wild West': The Role of International Norms in Cyberspace. E-International Relations. Retrieved Februari 11, 2023, from https://www.e-ir.info/2017/11/13/taming-the-wild-west-the-role-of-international-norms-in-cyberspace/
Triwahyuni, D., & Yani, Y. M. (2018, Juni). Dampak Pembangunan Cyberpower Tiongkok Terhadap Kepentingan Amerika Serikat. Jurnal Ilmu Politik dan Komunikasi, 8(1), 1-14. https://ojs.unikom.ac.id/index.php/jipsi/article/view/883
Warrell, H. (2021, Juni 27). China's cyber power at least a decade behind the US, new study finds. Financial Times. https://www.ft.com/content/3350bce7-7f19-4a45-a749-79aa9b3b265e
Wong, E., & Buckley, C. (2021, Juli 27). U.S. Says China's Repression of Uighurs Is 'Genocide'. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/19/us/politics/trump-china-xinjiang.html
Xiao, B. (2021, Januari 29). Google pulled its service from China more than a decade ago — can Australia learn from that? ABC. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-01-30/google-leave-australia-what-to-learn-from-china-legislation-law/13102112