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The Relationship Between Social Media Engagement and BodyEsteem Among Undergraduates From International Islamic University
Corresponding Author(s) : Hirzalla Nada Nael
Proceedings Universitas Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta Undergraduate Conference,
Vol. 1 No. 1 (2021): Engaging Youth in Community Development to Strengthen Nation's Welfare
Abstract
Introduction – As the use of social media continues to increase, past research has linked its use with various emotional and physical problems, such as body image distortion and eating disorders. University students have been found to be particularly susceptible to having poor body image. Purpose – This prompted the present study to examine the relationship between social media engagement and body[1]esteem among students in a public Malaysian university. Methodology/Approach – This study hypothesised that social media engagement is significantly associated with body-esteem. By adopting a correlational study, this research involved undergraduate students (N=116) from International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) who were required to fill in the Social Media Engagement Questionnaire (SMEQ) and Body-Esteem Scale Revised (BES-R) through an online survey. A Spearman’s correlation analysis was used to identify the correlation between social media engagement (M=22.46, SD=8.06) and body-esteem (M=93.39, SD=19.33). Findings – Results found that there was a significant yet weak positive relationship between the two variables examined (p = 0.05, 2 tailed), indicating that higher social media engagement is correlated with higher body-esteem. Originality/ Value/ Implication – These findings imply that social media engagement does not necessarily facilitate negative outcomes such as low body esteem as suggested by past studies. Instead, interactions through social media can aid in increasing body esteem. Nonetheless, as revealed by past research, this positive outcome may depend on the content that social media users engage with
Keywords
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- Momtaz, V., & Kavian Mobarake, R. (2016). Body-esteem
- mediates the relationship between self-esteem and social
- anxiety: The moderating roles of weight and gender. Child
- Care in Practice, 22(3), 296-308.
- Aichner, T., Grünfelder, M., Maurer, O., & Jegeni, D.
- (2021). Twenty-five years of social media: a review of
- social media applications and definitions from 1994 to
- Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking,
- (4), 215-222.
- Al-Yahya, T., AlOnayzan, A. H., AlAbdullah, Z. A., Alali,
- K. M., & Althabit, F. M. The impact of social media
- engagement on body image and increased popularity toward
- seeking cosmetic surgery. surgery, 20, 21.
- Allen, K. L., Byrne, S. M., Blair, E. M. & Davis, E. A.
- (2006) Why do some overweight children experience
- psychological problems? The role of weight and shape
- concern. International Journal of Pediatric Obesity, 1, 239–
- Alipour, B., Abbasalizad, M., Dehghan, P., & Alipour, M.
- (2015). Body image perception and its association with
- body mass index and nutrient intakes among female college
- students aged 18-35 years from Tabriz, Iran. Eating and
- weight disorders : EWD, 20(4), 465–471.
- https://doi.org/10.1007/s40519-015-0184-1
- Barlett, C. P., Vowels, C. L., & Saucier, D. A. (2008). Metaanalyses of the effects of media images on men's bodyimage concerns. Journal of social and clinical psychology,
- (3), 279-310.Brechan, I., & Kvalem, I. L. (2015).
- Relationship between body dissatisfaction and disordered
- eating: Mediating role of self-esteem and depression. Eating
- behaviors, 17, 49-58.
- Chang, L., Li, P., Loh, R. S. M., & Chua, T. H. H. (2019).
- A study of Singapore adolescent girls’ selfie practices, peer
- appearance comparisons, and body esteem on Instagram.
- Body Image, 29, 90–99. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2019.03.005
- Cohen, R., Fardouly, J., Newton-John, T., & Slater, A.
- (2019). #BoPo on Instagram: An experimental investigation
- of the effects of viewing body positive content on young
- women’s mood and body image. New Media & Society,
- (7), 1546-1564. doi: 10.1177/1461444819826530
- Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the
- behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
- Erlbaum.
- Dakanalis, A., & Riva, G. (2013). Mass media, body image
- and eating disturbances: The underlying mechanism
- through the lens of the objectification theory. Body image:
- Gender differences, sociocultural influences and health
- implications, 217-36.
- Daley, B. (2021). Link Between Social Media & Body
- Image | King University Online. Retrieved from
- https://online.king.edu/news/social-media-and-body-image
- Duval, S., & Wicklund, R. (1973). Effects of objective selfawareness on attribution of causality. Journal Of
- Experimental Social Psychology, 9(1), 17-31.
- Eide R. (1982). The relationship between body image, selfimage and physical activity. Scandinavian journal of social
- medicine. Supplementum, 29, 109–112.
- Engeln, R., Loach, R., Imundo, M. N., & Zola, A. (2020).
- Compared to Facebook, Instagram use causes more
- appearance comparison and lower body satisfaction in
- college women. Body Image, 34, 38-45.
- Eow, S. Y., & Gan, W. Y. (2018). Social media use, body
- image, and body weight status: Comparison between
- university students with and without disordered eating in
- Universiti Putra Malaysia. International Journal of Public
- Health and Clinical Sciences, 5(1), 129-145
- http://publichealthmy.org/ejournal/ojs2/index.php/ijphcs/ar
- ticle/view/537
- Festinger, L. (1957). Social comparison theory. Selective
- Exposure Theory, 16.
- Gluck, M. (2012). Digital Ad Engagement: An industry
- overview and reconceptuali- zation. Retrieved from:
- Interactive Advertising Bureau (IAB)
- http://www.iab.net/media/file/IAB-Ad-EngagementWhitepaper-12-05-12-tweaks.pdf.
- Frederick, D. A., Buchanan, G. M., Sadehgi-Azar, L.,
- Peplau, L. A., Haselton, M. G., Berezovskaya, A., &
- Lipinski, R. E. (2007). Desiring the muscular ideal: Men's
- body satisfaction in the United States, Ukraine, and Ghana.
- Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 8(2), 103.
- Frost, K. A., Franzoi, S. L., Oswald, D. L., & Shields, S. A.
- (2017). Revising the Body Esteem Scale with a US college
- student sample: Evaluation, validation, and uses for the
- BES-R. Sex Roles, 78(1), 1-17.
- Gonzales, A. L., & Hancock, J. T. (2011). Mirror, mirror on
- my Facebook wall: Effects of exposure to Facebook on selfesteem. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social
- Networking, 14, 79–83.
- https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2009.0411
- Goodyear, V. A., Armour, K. M., & Wood, H. (2018).
- Young people and their engagement with health-related
- social media: new perspectives. Sport, Education and
- Society, 1–16. doi:10.1080/13573322.2017.1423464
- Hollebeek, L. (2011). Exploring customer brand
- engagement: Definition and themes. Journal of strategic
- Marketing, 19(7), 555e573.
- Jager, J., Putnick, D. L., & Bornstein, M. H. (2017). II. More
- than just convenient: The scientific merits of homogeneous
- convenience samples. Monographs of the Society for
- Research in Child Development, 82(2), 13-30.
- Khan, M. L. (2017). Social media engagement: What
- motivates user participation and consumption on
- YouTube?. Computers in human behavior, 66, 236-247.
- Khodabakhsh, S., & Leng. C. S. (2020). Relationship
- between social media usage and body image evaluation in
- Malaysian youth. Malaysian Journal of Medical Research
- (MJMR), 4(4), 62-67. Retrieved from
- https://ejournal.lucp.net/index.php/mjmr/article/view/1215
- Kuan, P. X., Ho, H. L., Shuhaili, M. S., Siti, A. A., &
- Gudum, H. R. (2011). Gender differences in body mass
- index, body weight perception and weight loss strategies
- among undergraduates in Universiti Malaysia Sarawak.
- Malaysian journal of nutrition, 17(1).
- LaFontana, K. M., & Cillessen, A. H. (2010).
- Developmental changes in the priority or perceived status in
- childhood and adolescence. Social Development, 19, 130–
- http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2008.00522.x
- Lazuka, R. F., Wick, M. R., Keel, P. K., & Harriger, J. A.
- (2020). Are we there yet? Progress in depicting diverse
- images of beauty in Instagram’s body positivity movement.
- Body Image, 34, 85-93.
- Marengo, D., Longobardi, C., Fabris, M. A., & Settanni, M.
- (2018). Highly-visual social media and internalizing
- symptoms in adolescence: The mediating role of body
- image concerns. Computers in Human Behavior, 82, 63–69.
- https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.01.003
- Marino, C., Gini, G., Vieno, A., & Spada, M. M. (2018). A
- comprehensive meta-analysis on problematic Facebook use.
- Computers in Human Behavior, 83, 262–277.
- https://doi.org/10.1016 /j.chb.2018.02.009
- Meier, E., & Gray, J. (2014). Facebook Photo Activity
- Associated with Body Image Disturbance in Adolescent
- Girls. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, And Social Networking,
- (4), 199-206. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2013.0305
- Mond, J., van den Berg, P., Boutelle, K., Hannan, P. &
- Neumark-Sztainer, D. (2011) Obesity, body dissatisfaction,
- and emotional well-being in early and late adolescence:
- findings from the project EAT study. The Journal of
- Adolescent Health, 48, 373–378.
- Perloff, R. M. (2014). Social media effects on young
- women’s body image concerns: Theoretical perspectives
- and an agenda for research. Sex Roles, 71, 363–377.
- http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11199-014-0384-6
- Przybylski, A. K., Murayama, K., DeHaan, C. R., &
- Gladwell, V. (2013). Motivational, emotional, and
- behavioral correlates of fear of missing out. Computers in
- Human Behavior, 29, 1814-1848.
- Puglia, D. (2017). Social Media Use and Its Impact on Body
- Image: The Effects of Body Comparison Tendency,
- Motivation for Social Media Use, and Social Media
- Platform on Body Esteem in Young Women, 61-56.
- https://doi.org/10.17615/f0zw-xf2
- Rajendrah, S., Rashid, R. A., & Mohamed, S. B. (2017). The
- impact of advertisements on the conceptualisation of ideal
- female beauty: A systematic review. Man in India, 97(16),
- -369.
- Ratner, B. (n.d.). The Correlation Coefficient: Definition.
- DM STAT-1. Retrieved from,
- http://www.dmstat1.com/res/TheCorrelationCoefficientDe
- fined.html
- Robinson, L., Prichard, I., Nikolaidis, A., Drummond, C.,
- Drummond, M., & Tiggemann, M. (2017). Idealised media
- images: The effect of fitspiration imagery on body
- satisfaction and exercise behaviour. Body image, 22, 65-71.
- Santarossa, S., & Woodruff, S. J. (2017). #SocialMedia:
- Exploring the Relationship of Social Networking Sites on
- Body Image, Self-Esteem, and Eating Disorders. Social
- Media + Society.
- https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305117704407
- Sedgwick, P. (2014). Cross sectional studies: advantages
- and disadvantages. Bmj, 348.
- Shakya, H. B., & Christakis, N. A. (2017). Association of
- Facebook use with compromised well-being: A longitudinal
- study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 185, 203–211.
- https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kww189
- Shao, G. (2009). Understanding the appeal of usergenerated media: A uses and gratification perspective.
- Internet Research, 19(1), 7e25.
- Sudman, Seymour. 1976. Applied Sampling. NewYork:
- Academic Press.
- Takahashi, M., Fujimoto, M., & Yamasaki, N. (2003,
- November). The active lurker: Influence of an in-house
- online community on its outside environment. In
- Proceedings of the 2003 international ACM SIGGROUP
- conference on Supporting group work (pp. 1e10). ACM.
- Tiggemann, M., & Polivy, J. (2010). Upward and
- downward: Social comparison processing of thin idealized
- media images. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 34(3),
- -364.
- Tiggemann, M., & Slater, A. (2013a). NetGirls: The
- Internet, Facebook, and body image concern in adolescent
- girls. International Journal Of Eating Disorders, 46(6), 630-
- https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.22141
- Tiggemann, M., & Slater, A. (2013b). NetTweens. The
- Journal Of Early Adolescence, 34(5), 606-620.
- https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431613501083
- Voges, M. M., Giabbiconi, C., Schöne, B., Waldorf, M.,
- Hartmann, A. S., & Vocks, S. (2019). Gender differences in
- body evaluation: Do men show more self-serving double
- standards than women? Frontiers in Psychology, 10.
- doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00544
- Williams, N. A., Fournier, J., Coday, M., Richey, P. A.,
- Tylavsky, F. A., & Hare, M. E. (2012). Body esteem, peer
- difficulties and perceptions of physical health in overweight
- and obese urban children aged 5 to 7 years. Child: Care,
- Health and Development, n/a–n/a. doi:10.1111/j.1365-
- 2012.01401.x
- Winpenny, E. M., Marteau, T. M., & Nolte, E. (2014).
- Exposure of children and adolescents to alcohol marketing
- on social media websites. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 49(2),
- -159.
- Wu, A. M., Cheung, V. I., Ku, L., & Hung, E. P. (2013).
- Psychological risk factors of addiction to social networking
- sites among Chinese smartphone users. Journal of
- Behavioral Addictions, 2, 160–166.
- https://doi.org/10.1556/JBA.2.2013.006
- Zavattaro, S. M. (2020). Taking the Social Justice Fight to
- the Cloud: Social Media and Body Positivity. Public
- Integrity, 1–15.doi:10.1080/10999922.2020.1782104
References
Momtaz, V., & Kavian Mobarake, R. (2016). Body-esteem
mediates the relationship between self-esteem and social
anxiety: The moderating roles of weight and gender. Child
Care in Practice, 22(3), 296-308.
Aichner, T., Grünfelder, M., Maurer, O., & Jegeni, D.
(2021). Twenty-five years of social media: a review of
social media applications and definitions from 1994 to
Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking,
(4), 215-222.
Al-Yahya, T., AlOnayzan, A. H., AlAbdullah, Z. A., Alali,
K. M., & Althabit, F. M. The impact of social media
engagement on body image and increased popularity toward
seeking cosmetic surgery. surgery, 20, 21.
Allen, K. L., Byrne, S. M., Blair, E. M. & Davis, E. A.
(2006) Why do some overweight children experience
psychological problems? The role of weight and shape
concern. International Journal of Pediatric Obesity, 1, 239–
Alipour, B., Abbasalizad, M., Dehghan, P., & Alipour, M.
(2015). Body image perception and its association with
body mass index and nutrient intakes among female college
students aged 18-35 years from Tabriz, Iran. Eating and
weight disorders : EWD, 20(4), 465–471.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40519-015-0184-1
Barlett, C. P., Vowels, C. L., & Saucier, D. A. (2008). Metaanalyses of the effects of media images on men's bodyimage concerns. Journal of social and clinical psychology,
(3), 279-310.Brechan, I., & Kvalem, I. L. (2015).
Relationship between body dissatisfaction and disordered
eating: Mediating role of self-esteem and depression. Eating
behaviors, 17, 49-58.
Chang, L., Li, P., Loh, R. S. M., & Chua, T. H. H. (2019).
A study of Singapore adolescent girls’ selfie practices, peer
appearance comparisons, and body esteem on Instagram.
Body Image, 29, 90–99. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2019.03.005
Cohen, R., Fardouly, J., Newton-John, T., & Slater, A.
(2019). #BoPo on Instagram: An experimental investigation
of the effects of viewing body positive content on young
women’s mood and body image. New Media & Society,
(7), 1546-1564. doi: 10.1177/1461444819826530
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the
behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum.
Dakanalis, A., & Riva, G. (2013). Mass media, body image
and eating disturbances: The underlying mechanism
through the lens of the objectification theory. Body image:
Gender differences, sociocultural influences and health
implications, 217-36.
Daley, B. (2021). Link Between Social Media & Body
Image | King University Online. Retrieved from
https://online.king.edu/news/social-media-and-body-image
Duval, S., & Wicklund, R. (1973). Effects of objective selfawareness on attribution of causality. Journal Of
Experimental Social Psychology, 9(1), 17-31.
Eide R. (1982). The relationship between body image, selfimage and physical activity. Scandinavian journal of social
medicine. Supplementum, 29, 109–112.
Engeln, R., Loach, R., Imundo, M. N., & Zola, A. (2020).
Compared to Facebook, Instagram use causes more
appearance comparison and lower body satisfaction in
college women. Body Image, 34, 38-45.
Eow, S. Y., & Gan, W. Y. (2018). Social media use, body
image, and body weight status: Comparison between
university students with and without disordered eating in
Universiti Putra Malaysia. International Journal of Public
Health and Clinical Sciences, 5(1), 129-145
http://publichealthmy.org/ejournal/ojs2/index.php/ijphcs/ar
ticle/view/537
Festinger, L. (1957). Social comparison theory. Selective
Exposure Theory, 16.
Gluck, M. (2012). Digital Ad Engagement: An industry
overview and reconceptuali- zation. Retrieved from:
Interactive Advertising Bureau (IAB)
http://www.iab.net/media/file/IAB-Ad-EngagementWhitepaper-12-05-12-tweaks.pdf.
Frederick, D. A., Buchanan, G. M., Sadehgi-Azar, L.,
Peplau, L. A., Haselton, M. G., Berezovskaya, A., &
Lipinski, R. E. (2007). Desiring the muscular ideal: Men's
body satisfaction in the United States, Ukraine, and Ghana.
Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 8(2), 103.
Frost, K. A., Franzoi, S. L., Oswald, D. L., & Shields, S. A.
(2017). Revising the Body Esteem Scale with a US college
student sample: Evaluation, validation, and uses for the
BES-R. Sex Roles, 78(1), 1-17.
Gonzales, A. L., & Hancock, J. T. (2011). Mirror, mirror on
my Facebook wall: Effects of exposure to Facebook on selfesteem. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social
Networking, 14, 79–83.
https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2009.0411
Goodyear, V. A., Armour, K. M., & Wood, H. (2018).
Young people and their engagement with health-related
social media: new perspectives. Sport, Education and
Society, 1–16. doi:10.1080/13573322.2017.1423464
Hollebeek, L. (2011). Exploring customer brand
engagement: Definition and themes. Journal of strategic
Marketing, 19(7), 555e573.
Jager, J., Putnick, D. L., & Bornstein, M. H. (2017). II. More
than just convenient: The scientific merits of homogeneous
convenience samples. Monographs of the Society for
Research in Child Development, 82(2), 13-30.
Khan, M. L. (2017). Social media engagement: What
motivates user participation and consumption on
YouTube?. Computers in human behavior, 66, 236-247.
Khodabakhsh, S., & Leng. C. S. (2020). Relationship
between social media usage and body image evaluation in
Malaysian youth. Malaysian Journal of Medical Research
(MJMR), 4(4), 62-67. Retrieved from
https://ejournal.lucp.net/index.php/mjmr/article/view/1215
Kuan, P. X., Ho, H. L., Shuhaili, M. S., Siti, A. A., &
Gudum, H. R. (2011). Gender differences in body mass
index, body weight perception and weight loss strategies
among undergraduates in Universiti Malaysia Sarawak.
Malaysian journal of nutrition, 17(1).
LaFontana, K. M., & Cillessen, A. H. (2010).
Developmental changes in the priority or perceived status in
childhood and adolescence. Social Development, 19, 130–
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2008.00522.x
Lazuka, R. F., Wick, M. R., Keel, P. K., & Harriger, J. A.
(2020). Are we there yet? Progress in depicting diverse
images of beauty in Instagram’s body positivity movement.
Body Image, 34, 85-93.
Marengo, D., Longobardi, C., Fabris, M. A., & Settanni, M.
(2018). Highly-visual social media and internalizing
symptoms in adolescence: The mediating role of body
image concerns. Computers in Human Behavior, 82, 63–69.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.01.003
Marino, C., Gini, G., Vieno, A., & Spada, M. M. (2018). A
comprehensive meta-analysis on problematic Facebook use.
Computers in Human Behavior, 83, 262–277.
https://doi.org/10.1016 /j.chb.2018.02.009
Meier, E., & Gray, J. (2014). Facebook Photo Activity
Associated with Body Image Disturbance in Adolescent
Girls. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, And Social Networking,
(4), 199-206. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2013.0305
Mond, J., van den Berg, P., Boutelle, K., Hannan, P. &
Neumark-Sztainer, D. (2011) Obesity, body dissatisfaction,
and emotional well-being in early and late adolescence:
findings from the project EAT study. The Journal of
Adolescent Health, 48, 373–378.
Perloff, R. M. (2014). Social media effects on young
women’s body image concerns: Theoretical perspectives
and an agenda for research. Sex Roles, 71, 363–377.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11199-014-0384-6
Przybylski, A. K., Murayama, K., DeHaan, C. R., &
Gladwell, V. (2013). Motivational, emotional, and
behavioral correlates of fear of missing out. Computers in
Human Behavior, 29, 1814-1848.
Puglia, D. (2017). Social Media Use and Its Impact on Body
Image: The Effects of Body Comparison Tendency,
Motivation for Social Media Use, and Social Media
Platform on Body Esteem in Young Women, 61-56.
https://doi.org/10.17615/f0zw-xf2
Rajendrah, S., Rashid, R. A., & Mohamed, S. B. (2017). The
impact of advertisements on the conceptualisation of ideal
female beauty: A systematic review. Man in India, 97(16),
-369.
Ratner, B. (n.d.). The Correlation Coefficient: Definition.
DM STAT-1. Retrieved from,
http://www.dmstat1.com/res/TheCorrelationCoefficientDe
fined.html
Robinson, L., Prichard, I., Nikolaidis, A., Drummond, C.,
Drummond, M., & Tiggemann, M. (2017). Idealised media
images: The effect of fitspiration imagery on body
satisfaction and exercise behaviour. Body image, 22, 65-71.
Santarossa, S., & Woodruff, S. J. (2017). #SocialMedia:
Exploring the Relationship of Social Networking Sites on
Body Image, Self-Esteem, and Eating Disorders. Social
Media + Society.
https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305117704407
Sedgwick, P. (2014). Cross sectional studies: advantages
and disadvantages. Bmj, 348.
Shakya, H. B., & Christakis, N. A. (2017). Association of
Facebook use with compromised well-being: A longitudinal
study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 185, 203–211.
https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kww189
Shao, G. (2009). Understanding the appeal of usergenerated media: A uses and gratification perspective.
Internet Research, 19(1), 7e25.
Sudman, Seymour. 1976. Applied Sampling. NewYork:
Academic Press.
Takahashi, M., Fujimoto, M., & Yamasaki, N. (2003,
November). The active lurker: Influence of an in-house
online community on its outside environment. In
Proceedings of the 2003 international ACM SIGGROUP
conference on Supporting group work (pp. 1e10). ACM.
Tiggemann, M., & Polivy, J. (2010). Upward and
downward: Social comparison processing of thin idealized
media images. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 34(3),
-364.
Tiggemann, M., & Slater, A. (2013a). NetGirls: The
Internet, Facebook, and body image concern in adolescent
girls. International Journal Of Eating Disorders, 46(6), 630-
https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.22141
Tiggemann, M., & Slater, A. (2013b). NetTweens. The
Journal Of Early Adolescence, 34(5), 606-620.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431613501083
Voges, M. M., Giabbiconi, C., Schöne, B., Waldorf, M.,
Hartmann, A. S., & Vocks, S. (2019). Gender differences in
body evaluation: Do men show more self-serving double
standards than women? Frontiers in Psychology, 10.
doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00544
Williams, N. A., Fournier, J., Coday, M., Richey, P. A.,
Tylavsky, F. A., & Hare, M. E. (2012). Body esteem, peer
difficulties and perceptions of physical health in overweight
and obese urban children aged 5 to 7 years. Child: Care,
Health and Development, n/a–n/a. doi:10.1111/j.1365-
2012.01401.x
Winpenny, E. M., Marteau, T. M., & Nolte, E. (2014).
Exposure of children and adolescents to alcohol marketing
on social media websites. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 49(2),
-159.
Wu, A. M., Cheung, V. I., Ku, L., & Hung, E. P. (2013).
Psychological risk factors of addiction to social networking
sites among Chinese smartphone users. Journal of
Behavioral Addictions, 2, 160–166.
https://doi.org/10.1556/JBA.2.2013.006
Zavattaro, S. M. (2020). Taking the Social Justice Fight to
the Cloud: Social Media and Body Positivity. Public
Integrity, 1–15.doi:10.1080/10999922.2020.1782104